Opium Wars: The 19th-Century Conflict Between China and Britain

                                  First Opium War

At the end of the 18th century, Western powers, especially Britain, showed great interest in trading with China. Britain’s major port cities, including London, Liverpool, and Bristol, served as the main entry points for goods arriving from China. However, China strictly controlled its foreign trade, allowing Western merchants to operate only through the port of Guangzhou.

China produced large quantities of tea, silk, and porcelain, which it exported to Britain. However, Britain faced a significant problem: China purchased almost no goods from Britain. As a largely self-sufficient economy, China accepted only silver from Western nations. To pay for its large imports from China, Britain used silver sourced from Spanish colonies in Latin America, such as Mexico and Peru.

The massive outflow of silver began to strain the British economy. In response, the British government and merchants sought an alternative product to balance this trade deficit.

During this period, the British turned their attention to opium. Opium, derived from the poppy plant, was a highly addictive narcotic. After colonizing India, the British East India Company started producing large quantities of opium. India, particularly the regions of Bengal, Bihar, and Calcutta, had fertile land suitable for opium cultivation, and the British forced local farmers to grow opium.

The British East India Company did not directly sell opium from India to China, as the Chinese government strictly regulated British trade. Instead, private British merchants, particularly William Jardine and James Matheson, used Indian intermediaries to bypass restrictions. Opium was loaded onto ships in the Bay of Bengal and then smuggled into secret ports along the southern coast of China.

Since official ports like Guangzhou had strict controls, opium was often transported through ports such as Macau and Hong Kong or secretly distributed inland from hidden coastal locations.

In China, opium had become a major market controlled by local merchants and smugglers. Initially, only the elite class and wealthy traders used opium. However, over time, opium consumption spread to the lower classes of society. Particularly as opium was sold in exchange for silver, the amount of silver the British acquired from China increased, and the trade balance began to shift in favor of the British.

However, the situation reached a critical point. The addiction rate had risen so dramatically that opium became a substance used by all sectors of society, from soldiers and farmers to merchants and government officials. Opium-addicted workers and officials were unable to perform their duties, negatively affecting agriculture, trade, and bureaucracy.

This situation deeply concerned the officials of the Qing Dynasty. Emperor Qianlong was extremely strict about Western interference in Chinese trade. He immediately ordered strict measures to be taken to stop the opium trade. The Chinese government assigned Lin Zexu to resolve this issue. Lin Zexu was a strict and disciplined statesman who had the determination to take decisive measures to end the harm caused by opium in China.

Lin Zexu traveled to Guangzhou and began direct intervention.
First, he issued a proclamation warning that traders involved in the opium trade would face the death penalty. Government officials who used opium would be punished, and citizens who consumed opium would be given time to seek treatment, but those who continued to use it would be sentenced to imprisonment.

He then expelled British traders from their residences in Guangzhou and forced them to surrender their opium stocks. He gave them an ultimatum, demanding that they voluntarily hand over their opium. British representative Charles Elliot negotiated with Lin Zexu to protect the interests of British traders. However, Lin Zexu was resolute and declared that he would not allow the British to leave Guangzhou until the opium was surrendered.

Eventually, British traders handed over approximately 20,000 chests of opium to the Chinese government. The surrendered opium, totaling around 1,200 tons, was transported to the Humen beach near Guangzhou. Lin Zexu ordered its complete destruction to prevent further harm to the public. The destruction process took weeks and was recorded as one of the largest opium disposal operations in Chinese history.

Lin Zexu, after this incident, wrote a letter to Queen Victoria of England, stating that the British should take moral responsibility and urging Britain to stop selling opium to China. However, this letter received no response.

Lin Zexu’s opium destruction operation in Guangzhou and his strict measures against British traders escalated diplomatic tensions between England and China. The British government accused China of obstructing British trade and mistreating its merchants, leading to the decision for military intervention.

With Queen Victoria’s approval, the British government decided to deploy warships of the Royal Navy to the Chinese coast in late 1839.

The Royal Navy was one of the most powerful naval forces in the world, unmatched on the seas. In the early 19th century, it had developed significantly under the influence of the Industrial Revolution and was equipped with steam-powered warships, long-range artillery, and large battle fleets.

The fleet, led by Admiral George Elliot, that was sent to China consisted of a total of 50 ships. Among them, 20 were frigates, steam-powered warships, and corvettes, while the remaining 30 were transport ships.

The largest ships in the fleet were HMS Nemesis, HMS Volage, and HMS Wellesley. HMS Nemesis, in particular, was the first iron-hulled, steam-powered warship in history. It was capable of maneuvering effectively along the Chinese coast and could easily sink Chinese ships with its powerful artillery.

The British Royal Army initially consisted of 5,000 soldiers. Later, an additional 4,500 soldiers from the East India Company and 4,000 Indian Sepoy soldiers were added to the force.

Additionally, compared to the Chinese navy, British warships were equipped with much longer-range and more effective cannons. The fleet carried over 500 naval cannons, while the land forces were equipped with 40 to 50 large-caliber field guns.

China’s defensive army consisted of 20,000 soldiers. The Chinese navy, under the command of Admiral Guan Tianpei, had a total of 300 ships. Among these, 250 were wooden junk ships, 30 were larger junk ships armed with cannons, and 20 were Western-style warships.

The first major battle took place in November 1839 near Guangzhou, in the Humen Strait. The Royal Navy’s warships, HMS Volage and HMS Hyacinth, confronted the Chinese fleet commanded by Admiral Guan Tianpei.

 The Chinese attempted to block the British advance by establishing a defensive line with 29 warships. However, due to their outdated designs and short-range cannons, the Chinese ships quickly found themselves at a disadvantage against the superior firepower of the British. The British warships, equipped with long-range artillery, began bombarding the Chinese fleet from a distance.

 With each cannon blast, the Chinese warships burst into flames, their wooden hulls shattering under the impact. The technological superiority of the British determined the outcome of the battle within a few hours. Fifteen to twenty Chinese warships were sunk, while the remaining vessels attempted to flee. After this initial defeat, the British advanced toward Guangzhou.

By the end of 1839 and the beginning of 1840, the British formulated a new strategy to capture Guangzhou. On the morning of March 6, 1840, British landing forces mobilized toward the shores of Guangzhou. HMS Nemesis and other warships bombarded the port, unleashing a relentless artillery barrage that shattered Chinese defensive positions along the coastline. The Chinese defenders, armed with outdated muskets, tried to return fire at the British ships, but their bullets often fell short, splashing into the water before reaching their targets.

As the bombardment continued, British landing boats began moving toward the shore. The first wave of 500 Royal Marines landed on the beaches, quickly securing a foothold. They were followed by 1,500 Indian Sepoy soldiers, reinforcing the British assault. The British forces advanced rapidly, pushing Chinese troops back into the city. Street fighting erupted in Guangzhou, as Chinese soldiers erected makeshift barricades in a desperate attempt to slow the British advance. However, their outdated firearms proved ineffective against the rapid and precise volleys of British muskets. Within a short time, Guangzhou had completely fallen, and the British took full control of the city.

After securing Guangzhou, the British forces turned their attention to China’s eastern coastline. In July 1840, they launched an assault on Chusan Island (Zhoushan). British warships approached the island, bombarding its defenses before the Royal Marines launched a full-scale landing operation. The Chinese garrison resisted from behind the fortress walls, relying on bows, outdated muskets, and defensive structures. However, British artillery swiftly breached the walls, forcing the defenders into hand-to-hand combat. The Chinese soldiers, wielding swords and spears, launched a final counterattack, but they were ultimately overwhelmed by British bayonet charges. The fall of Chusan provided the British with a staging ground to advance along the Yangtze River.

The final major battle of the war occurred in 1842, as British forces pushed northward toward larger Chinese cities. The Royal Navy advanced along the Yangtze River, launching assaults on key coastal ports. In May 1842, the British captured Xiamen and Shanghai. By July, British troops had reached the gates of Nanjing, surrounding the city and placing it under siege. At this point, China had suffered devastating losses, and its army was unable to withstand the firepower of the British fleet. Finally, the Qing Dynasty was forced to seek peace.

The resulting treaty required China to cede Hong Kong to the British Empire and to open five major ports—Guangzhou, Shanghai, Ningbo, Xiamen, and Fuzhou—to Western merchants. Additionally, China was forced to pay 21 million silver taels (approximately 1.5 million kilograms of silver) as war reparations. The payment was to be made in installments over three years. This massive debt severely strained the Chinese economy. The Qing Dynasty imposed heavy taxes on its people to raise funds, increasing public discontent. The Chinese treasury weakened, and China became economically dependent on Western powers. This war indemnity also encouraged other Western nations to demand additional economic and trade privileges from China.

Furthermore, the Qing government was forced to exile its official, Lin Zexu. The psychological impact of the war was even more devastating. Chinese forces, equipped with outdated muskets and cannons, and supported by a limited navy, were overwhelmingly ineffective against the British. Dozens of Chinese officers committed suicide after failing to stop British marines, steam-powered warships, and merchant fleets.

On October 8, 1843, a second treaty was signed, granting British citizens immunity from Chinese laws. Britain also secured the "Most-Favored-Nation" status, which meant that it would automatically benefit from any trade privileges granted to other nations in the future. Seeing China’s weakness, other European powers soon joined in, demanding their own trade concessions and territorial privileges.

By the 1840s, the process of China’s colonization had begun, accelerating at an unrelenting pace. The once dominant empire of Asia, which had ruled for centuries, found itself dismantled within a mere 70 years…