Cambyses II: The Persian King Who Conquered Egypt But Lost His Empire

 The Conquering King of Persia and His Mysterious Downfall

Cambyses II (reigned 530–522 BCE) was the second king of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, succeeding his father, Cyrus the Great, one of history’s greatest conquerors. Though often overshadowed by his father and his successor, Darius I, Cambyses played a critical role in the expansion of the Persian Empire, most notably conquering Egypt and integrating it into Persian rule. However, his reign was also marked by controversy, alleged tyranny, and a mysterious death, making him one of the most enigmatic figures of Persian history.

Cambyses was born as the eldest son of Cyrus the Great and Queen Cassandane, a noblewoman of Persian lineage. After Cyrus’ death in 530 BCE (reportedly during a campaign against the Massagetae in Central Asia), Cambyses ascended to the throne, becoming King of Kings. His younger brother, Bardiya (also called Smerdis by Greek sources), played a lesser role in Persian politics, but he would later become the center of one of the greatest political crises in Achaemenid history.

The Conquest of Egypt (525 BCE)

One of Cambyses' most significant achievements was the conquest of Egypt, which he launched in 525 BCE. Egypt, under Pharaoh Psamtik III, was one of the last remaining major powers outside Persian control. Cambyses prepared for his invasion carefully:

1. Alliances with Key Nations – He secured naval support from the Phoenicians and Cypriots, ensuring Persian dominance at sea.
2. A Secret Path Through the Desert – Cambyses formed an alliance with the Arabian tribes, who supplied his army with water and provisions, allowing the Persian army to cross the Sinai Desert.
3. Defection of Egyptian Mercenaries – The Greek mercenary Phanes of Halicarnassus, a former Egyptian general, defected to Persia, providing Cambyses with intelligence on Egyptian military strategy.

The decisive battle between Persia and Egypt took place at the Battle of Pelusium (525 BCE), near the Nile Delta. Cambyses’ forces decimated the Egyptian army, using psychological warfare by placing sacred animals (like cats) on their shields, knowing that the Egyptians would hesitate to harm them. Psamtik III retreated to Memphis, but the city soon fell, and Egypt was absorbed into the Persian Empire.

Cambyses' Rule Over Egypt

Following his victory, Cambyses adopted the title of Pharaoh of Egypt, ruling in a manner similar to traditional Egyptian kings. He respected Egyptian customs, temples, and religious practices, though later Greek sources, especially Herodotus, depict him as a tyrant who insulted Egyptian traditions. Some stories claim Cambyses mocked the Apis Bull (a sacred symbol of Egyptian religion), but archaeological evidence suggests he actually honored the Apis cult.

To solidify Persian control over Egypt, Cambyses planned additional military campaigns:

• Against Carthage – This campaign failed because his Phoenician allies refused to attack their own people.
• Against Ethiopia – This expedition ended in disaster, with the Persian army lost in the desert due to lack of supplies.
• Against the Siwa Oasis (Oracle of Amun) – Cambyses reportedly sent 50,000 men, but they vanished in a sandstorm, a mystery that persists to this day.

The Crisis of Bardiya and Cambyses’ Death (522 BCE)

While Cambyses was in Egypt, a political disaster struck the Persian Empire. A man claiming to be Bardiya (Cambyses’ brother) seized the Persian throne. Ancient sources claim the real Bardiya had already been secretly executed by Cambyses, and that the "Bardiya" who ruled was actually an impostor named Gaumata, a Median priest.

Hearing of the rebellion, Cambyses rushed back to Persia, but on the journey, he mysteriously died. Accounts of his death vary:

• Greek sources (Herodotus) claim he stabbed himself by accident while mounting his horse.
• Persian sources (Behistun Inscription by Darius I) suggest he died of an illness or was assassinated.
• Some historians speculate he was killed by political rivals who supported Darius I’s rise to power.

With Cambyses dead, Darius I soon took control of the empire, eliminating the false Bardiya and establishing a new era of Persian governance.